Revisiting the Ohio Family Trust Company Act

I first wrote about the Ohio Family Trust Company Act (OFTCA), shortly after it was enacted in 2016. The OFTCA allows families to establish Family Trust Companies (FTCs) in Ohio to serve as trustees for their family trusts. This legislation positions Ohio among approximately 16 states, including South Dakota, Nevada, and Wyoming, that have similar statutes, with Ohio being one of the few to offer both licensed and unlicensed FTC options. The Act aims to provide a flexible wealth management tool for families, particularly those with significant assets, while keeping business and investments within the state.

Key Features of the Ohio Family Trust Company Act

Definition and Structure

A Family Trust Company (FTC) under the OFTCA is defined as a corporation or limited liability company organized under Ohio law that meets specific requirements:

• It must be wholly owned by "family clients" and exclusively controlled (directly or indirectly) by one or more family members or family entities, such as trusts or estates tied to the family.
• It cannot transact trust business with, act as a fiduciary for, or accept trust business from anyone who is not a family client, ensuring it serves only the family and related entities.
• A "family client" includes family members (lineal descendants of a designated ancestor not more than 10 generations removed, their spouses, spousal equivalents, adopted children, stepchildren, and foster children), family charities, estates, irrevocable trusts with family beneficiaries, key employees, and certain business entities wholly owned by family members. This definition aligns with the SEC’s "family office" concept to limit the FTC’s scope to private family matters.

Licensed vs. Unlicensed FTCs

The OFTCA allows for two types of FTCs, each with distinct requirements and benefits:

1. Unlicensed FTCs:
   • Purpose: These can provide services only to "family members," as defined above, and are not allowed to solicit trust business from the public.
   • Regulation: Unlicensed FTCs are not subject to supervision by the Ohio Superintendent of Financial Institutions, reducing regulatory oversight. They must, however, file an annual affidavit with the Superintendent confirming compliance with statutory limitations (e.g., serving only family members). The Superintendent may charge a fee for this filing.
   • Advantages: They are exempt from banking regulations and do not need to register with the SEC as a Registered Investment Advisor, which lowers operational costs and administrative burdens. They must, however, comply with SEC rules if providing investment advice.
   • Naming Restriction: Unlicensed FTCs cannot use "trust," "family trust company," or "FTC" in their name to avoid implying they are regulated entities.
2. Licensed FTCs:
   • Purpose: Licensed FTCs can serve a broader range of clients, including family members, certain non-family members (e.g., up to 25 beneficiaries of a family member’s will or trust), and affiliated entities like family charities or businesses.
   • Regulation: They are subject to oversight by the Ohio Division of Financial Institutions, including audits every 18 months initially and at least every 36 months thereafter.
   • Requirements:
     • Maintain a minimum capital balance of $200,000 (up to $500,000 at the Superintendent’s discretion).
     • Hold at least two board meetings per year in Ohio with a quorum physically present.
     • Maintain an office in Ohio, employ or contract with at least one part-time individual in the state, and perform at least three trust administration activities (e.g., issuing Crummey letters, preparing annual trust statements) in Ohio.
     • Maintain fidelity bonds and directors/officers insurance, each at least $1 million.
     • File a $5,000 nonrefundable application fee, with the Division investigating the applicant within 60 days.
   • Naming: Licensed FTCs must include "family trust company" or "FTC" in their name.

Powers and Functions

FTCs, whether licensed or unlicensed, are granted broad powers to manage family assets, including:

• Acting as a fiduciary (e.g., trustee, personal representative) within and outside Ohio.
• Serving in various capacities such as investment adviser, financial adviser, custodian, escrow agent, or managing agent, and managing real or personal property for family clients.
• Specific fiduciary powers while acting as a trustee, including:
  • Investing in securities or contracts affiliated with the FTC or family entities.
  • Using family-affiliated brokers for security transactions.
  • Depositing trust funds in financial institutions owned by family affiliates.
  • Making equity investments in nonpublic entities controlled by family members.
  • Loaning or borrowing money from family members or trusts managed by the FTC.
  • Acting as a proxy to vote shares or appoint officers/directors in business entities held by the trust.

These powers allow FTCs to maintain significant family control over investments and decision-making, which is a key advantage over traditional trustees like banks or individual family members.

Limitations and Compliance

• Client Restriction: FTCs are limited to serving family clients, preventing them from operating as public trust companies. This ensures they remain private entities focused on family wealth management.
• Regulatory Oversight for Licensed FTCs: Licensed FTCs face stricter requirements, including audits and capital minimums, which increase operational costs but allow them to serve a slightly broader client base.
• SEC Compliance: Unlicensed FTCs must navigate SEC rules to avoid registering as investment advisors, which can limit their investment advisory activities unless carefully structured.

Advantages of Family Trust Companies (FTCs)

Enhanced Control and Family Involvement:

• Advantage: FTCs allow families to maintain significant control over their trusts and assets by appointing family members or trusted advisors as officers, directors, or managers of the FTC. This ensures that trust administration aligns with the family’s values, investment philosophy, and long-term goals.
• Details: Unlike a traditional trustee (e.g., a bank or individual), an FTC is a corporate entity wholly owned and controlled by the family. Family members can serve on the board, make investment decisions, and oversee trust administration, fostering a sense of ownership and continuity.
• Example: A family can use an FTC to manage a family business held in a trust, ensuring that business decisions reflect the family’s vision rather than an external trustee’s priorities.

Perpetual Existence and Succession Planning:

• Advantage: As a corporate entity, an FTC provides a permanent trustee solution that can manage family trusts across multiple generations without the disruptions caused by the death or incapacity of individual trustees.
• Details: Individual trustees (e.g., a family member or attorney) may pass away, become incapacitated, or resign, requiring the appointment of successors, which can lead to delays or disputes. An FTC, as a legal entity, exists indefinitely unless dissolved, ensuring seamless trust administration.
• Example: If a dynasty trust spans several generations, an FTC can serve as its trustee for decades, avoiding the need to appoint new individual trustees as older ones retire or pass away.

Education and Governance for Future Generations:

• Advantage: FTCs provide a platform for younger family members to learn about wealth management, fiduciary responsibilities, and family governance by participating in the FTC’s operations.
• Details: Family members can serve on the FTC’s board or committees, gaining hands-on experience in managing investments, trusts, and family businesses. This prepares them to handle wealth responsibly and ensures the family’s legacy is preserved.
• Example: A family might involve their adult children in the FTC’s investment committee, teaching them about asset allocation and risk management while ensuring they understand the family’s financial goals.

Cost Savings and Convenience:

• Advantage: FTCs can reduce costs associated with hiring external trustees (e.g., banks, professional trust companies) and eliminate the need to establish trusts in other states, keeping business and revenue local.
• Details: Before statutes like the OFTCA, families often had to set up trusts or FTCs in states like South Dakota or Nevada, incurring travel, legal, and administrative expenses. An FTC in the family’s home state (e.g., Ohio) lowers these costs and simplifies operations. Additionally, FTCs can manage multiple family trusts under one entity, reducing administrative overhead compared to hiring separate trustees for each trust.
• Example: An Ohio family with $50 million in assets can save on fees by using an FTC to manage their trusts instead of paying a corporate trustee 1% annually ($500,000/year) plus additional fees for out-of-state operations.

Flexibility in Trust Administration:

• Advantage: FTCs have broad powers to act as fiduciaries and manage family assets, offering flexibility to tailor trust administration to the family’s specific needs.
• Details: Under the OFTCA, FTCs can serve as trustees, investment advisors, financial advisors, custodians, or managing agents, and they have specific powers like investing in family-affiliated entities, using family brokers, or making loans to family members. This allows the FTC to adapt to the family’s unique financial situation, such as managing a family business, real estate, or alternative investments.
• Example: An FTC managing a dynasty trust can invest trust assets in a family-owned startup, something a traditional trustee might avoid due to risk aversion or conflicts of interest.

Privacy and Regulatory Exemptions:

• Advantage: Unlicensed FTCs in Ohio are not subject to banking regulations or oversight by the Ohio Superintendent of Financial Institutions, reducing regulatory burdens and enhancing privacy.
• Details: Unlicensed FTCs only need to file an annual affidavit confirming they serve family clients, and they are exempt from registering with the SEC as Registered Investment Advisors (though they must comply with SEC rules if providing investment advice). This minimizes public disclosure and administrative costs while keeping family affairs private.
• Example: A family using an unlicensed FTC can manage their trusts without public filings or audits, unlike a licensed FTC or a public trust company.

Attracting Out-of-State Families:

• Advantage: Ohio’s lack of a residency requirement allows out-of-state families to establish FTCs in the state, benefiting from Ohio’s favorable trust laws and potentially boosting local economic activity.
• Details: Families from states without FTC statutes can set up an FTC in Ohio to take advantage of its flexible regulations, such as the ability to serve non-family beneficiaries (for licensed FTCs) or the lack of supervision for unlicensed FTCs.
• Example: A family from New York might establish an FTC in Ohio to manage their trusts, benefiting from Ohio’s laws while keeping their investments and operations in a single state.

Centralized Management of Multiple Trusts:

• Advantage: An FTC can serve as the trustee for multiple family trusts, centralizing administration and reducing complexity compared to managing each trust separately.
• Details: A family with several trusts (e.g., a dynasty trust, a pet trust, and a charitable trust) can appoint the FTC as the trustee for all, streamlining decision-making, record-keeping, and compliance.
• Example: An FTC can manage a dynasty trust for the family’s main assets, a pet trust for a beloved horse, and a charitable trust for a family foundation, all under one entity with consistent governance.

Why Not Just a Private Dynasty Trust?

A private dynasty trust is a powerful tool for generational wealth transfer, designed to hold assets for multiple generations while minimizing estate taxes and protecting assets from creditors. It has limitations, however, that an FTC can address, making the two structures complementary rather than mutually exclusive. Here’s why a family might prefer an FTC over, or in addition to, a dynasty trust:

Control and Customization:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: A dynasty trust is typically managed by an individual trustee (e.g., a family member) or a corporate trustee (e.g., a bank). Individual trustees may lack expertise or create conflicts of interest, while corporate trustees often charge high fees and follow conservative investment strategies that may not align with the family’s goals.
• FTC Advantage: An FTC allows the family to control the trustee entity itself, appointing family members or trusted advisors to manage the dynasty trust. This ensures that trust administration reflects the family’s values and investment preferences, rather than an external trustee’s priorities.
• Example: A dynasty trust managed by a bank might invest only in low-risk bonds, while an FTC managing the same trust can invest in a family business or real estate, aligning with the family’s risk tolerance and goals.

Succession and Longevity:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: A dynasty trust relies on individual trustees or corporate trustees, which can lead to succession issues. If an individual trustee dies or becomes incapacitated, appointing a successor can be contentious or delayed. Corporate trustees may change ownership or policies over time, disrupting the trust’s administration.
• FTC Advantage: An FTC, as a corporate entity, has perpetual existence and can serve as the trustee for the dynasty trust indefinitely. This eliminates the need to appoint new trustees as individuals pass away or resign, ensuring continuity across generations.
• Example: A dynasty trust set up in 2025 might outlive its original trustee by 50 years; an FTC ensures there’s no gap in administration, while a new individual trustee might need to be appointed multiple times over that period.

Cost and Administrative Efficiency:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: Managing a dynasty trust with an external trustee can be expensive, with corporate trustees often charging 0.5%–1.5% of assets annually, plus additional fees for investment management or legal services. If the trust holds complex assets (e.g., a family business, real estate), administrative costs can escalate.
• FTC Advantage: An FTC reduces costs by keeping trust administration in-house, avoiding external trustee fees. It also centralizes management of multiple trusts, reducing administrative overhead. For Ohio families, the OFTCA eliminates the need to operate out-of-state, saving on travel and legal expenses.
• Example: A $100 million dynasty trust might incur $1 million/year in fees with a corporate trustee, while an FTC could manage it for a fraction of that cost by using family members or in-house staff.

Flexibility in Investment and Management:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: Traditional trustees (especially corporate ones) often follow strict fiduciary standards that limit their ability to invest in riskier or family-affiliated assets, such as a family business or startup. This can restrict the trust’s growth potential or conflict with the family’s investment strategy.
• FTC Advantage: FTCs have broad powers under the OFTCA to invest in family-affiliated entities, use family brokers, or make loans to family members, allowing for more tailored and aggressive investment strategies. The family can also customize the FTC’s governance to reflect their priorities.
• Example: A dynasty trust managed by a bank might avoid investing in a family-owned vineyard due to risk concerns, while an FTC can allocate trust funds to the vineyard, supporting the family business and potentially increasing returns.

Privacy and Regulatory Oversight:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: A dynasty trust managed by a corporate trustee may require public filings or audits, depending on the trustee’s status and jurisdiction. If the trust operates in a state with strict regulations, privacy can be compromised.
• FTC Advantage: Unlicensed FTCs in Ohio are not subject to banking regulations or oversight by the Ohio Superintendent of Financial Institutions, enhancing privacy and reducing administrative burdens. They only need to file an annual affidavit confirming compliance.
• Example: An unlicensed FTC managing a dynasty trust can operate without public disclosure, while a corporate trustee might need to file reports that reveal trust details.

Education and Family Governance:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: A dynasty trust managed by an external trustee offers little opportunity for family involvement or education. Beneficiaries may remain disconnected from the trust’s management, potentially leading to mismanagement or lack of financial literacy in future generations.
• FTC Advantage: FTCs provide a platform for family members to participate in trust administration, learn about wealth management, and develop governance structures (e.g., investment committees, family councils). This ensures the family’s legacy is preserved through active engagement.
• Example: A dynasty trust beneficiary might receive distributions without understanding the trust’s purpose, while an FTC can involve them in board meetings, teaching them fiduciary responsibility.

Scalability for Multiple Trusts:

• Dynasty Trust Limitation: A single dynasty trust can only manage the assets it holds, and if a family has multiple trusts (e.g., for different purposes like charity, pets, or business succession), each may require a separate trustee, increasing complexity and costs.
• FTC Advantage: An FTC can serve as the trustee for multiple family trusts, centralizing administration and ensuring consistency in management. This is particularly useful for families with diverse assets and goals.
• Example: A family with a dynasty trust, a pet trust, and a charitable trust can appoint the FTC as the trustee for all, streamlining operations and reducing administrative costs.

Why Use Both an FTC and a Dynasty Trust?

Rather than choosing between an FTC and a dynasty trust, many families use them together for maximum benefit:

• Complementary Roles: A dynasty trust can hold and protect assets across generations, leveraging Ohio’s favorable trust laws (e.g., perpetual duration, strong creditor protection). An FTC can serve as the trustee for the dynasty trust, providing the control, flexibility, and continuity that a traditional trustee might lack.
• Enhanced Asset Protection: A dynasty trust offers strong asset protection against creditors and divorce, while an FTC adds a layer of control and privacy, ensuring the trust is managed according to the family’s wishes.
• Long-Term Strategy: The dynasty trust ensures wealth preservation for future generations, while the FTC ensures that the trust’s administration remains in the family’s hands, adapting to changing circumstances over time.

Example Scenario:

A family with $200 million in assets sets up a dynasty trust to hold their wealth, taking advantage of Ohio’s perpetual trust laws and estate tax exemptions. They establish an unlicensed FTC under the OFTCA to serve as the trustee for the dynasty trust. The FTC, controlled by family members, invests trust assets in the family’s real estate and farming businesses, educates the next generation through board participation, and manages additional trusts (e.g., a pet trust for the family’s horses, a charitable trust for a foundation). This setup combines the dynasty trust’s asset protection and tax benefits with the FTC’s control, flexibility, and cost efficiency.

Conclusion

Family Trust Companies offer significant advantages over relying solely on a private dynasty trust, including greater control, perpetual existence, cost savings, flexibility in investment and management, privacy, and opportunities for family education and governance. While a dynasty trust is excellent for preserving wealth across generations and minimizing taxes, it lacks the administrative control and scalability that an FTC provides. For high-net-worth families, using an FTC to manage a dynasty trust (and other family trusts) combines the best of both worlds, ensuring long-term wealth management that aligns with the family’s values and goals.

Off-Label Trusts: Part One—A Toolkit from Pets to Philanthropy

An “off-label” trust is not a formal legal term but a useful way to describe trusts that are adapted creatively for purposes beyond their traditional uses. Borrowing the term from prescription medications, where a drug is used successfully for an originally unintended purpose, “off-label” describes a novel or special-purpose trust.  

Trusts, whether revocable or irrevocable, are inherently flexible tools. They are used in estate and financial planning, as well as asset management. Their structure can be tailored to meet a wide range of specific, sometimes unconventional, needs.

Trusts are both designed and drafted, usually by lawyers. All well-drafted and properly funded trusts avoid probate of assets at death. Dynasty trusts avoid probate for as long as the trust dictates, sometimes for generations or perpetually. 

All well-drafted trusts address the incapacity of a decision-maker through a succession of designated roles, such as trustees, trust protectors (who oversee trust administration), or surrogates (who act on behalf of incapacitated parties). Beyond these benefits, trusts offer advantages specific to certain assets or property types, addressing their unique challenges.

The most important of attribute of a trust over a business entity, to many clients, is privacy. Unlike business entities, which are established and regulated under state and federal law, trusts are private arrangements subject to minimal government oversight. Business entities in most states require initial establishment through a state government and periodic reporting. States have inherent authority to request or inspect documents and records from business entities. Most state governments lack inherent authority over trusts. Additionally, a revocable trust and some irrevocable trusts can operate without a separate tax identification number, requiring no separate tax return.

In recent years, more states have adopted statutory trust codes, but these typically do not regulate trust purposes beyond confirming that trusts must be created for a legal or lawful purpose. These codes formalize the enforcement of common law regarding trustees’ duties, such as fiduciary responsibilities in managing assets and the duty to notify and inform beneficiaries. A well-drafted trust should incorporate these requirements to ensure statutory compliance and inform trustees of their responsibilities.

Most trusts are marital, domestic (e.g., unmarried cohabitating persons), or single-person trusts serving as will substitutes to avoid probate. However, trusts can be created by anyone or any group and have evolved to provide solutions for a variety of challenges and interests. Below are examples of “off-label” trusts.

Trusts for General Shared Property Ownership

Instead of a partnership, limited liability company (LLC), or joint ownership, a trust can hold and manage shared property, such as a family vacation home,  a hunting cabin and/or land, a community garden, or conservation property. Using a trust offers several advantages:

    -Centralized Management: A trustee oversees maintenance, expenses, and usage schedules, preventing disputes among co-owners (e.g., siblings or cousins) common in partnerships or tenancy-in-common arrangements. In a trust, management and financial burdens can be alleviated for those least willing or able to participate.

    -Flexibility: The trust terms can specify rules for use (e.g., who gets the property during hunting season), cost-sharing, and what happens if a beneficiary wants out or dies.

    -Continuity: Unlike a partnership, which may dissolve upon a partner’s death, a trust continues seamlessly with successor trustees and beneficiaries.

  -Dispute Resolution: A trust can incorporate alternate dispute resolution techniques, such as mandatory arbitration or mediation, to reduce litigation costs.

    -Protection from Third Parties: Trusts shield assets from third parties, such as ex-spouses, creditors, or predatory interlopers.

    -Avoiding Probate: Trust-held property bypasses probate, ensuring the asset remains intact without court delays or costs.

Land trusts, such as those in Illinois, are often used for privacy or joint ownership. I practiced law in Illinois from 1988 to 2000, during that time transitioning several real estate syndicates and limited partnerships to Illinois Land Trusts to minimize regulatory compliance and expense. 

For example, a revocable living trust could hold the property during the grantors’ lifetimes, allowing them to retain control, then convert to an irrevocable trust upon their death with detailed instructions for heirs on managing and enjoying the property. Alternatively, an irrevocable trust with tax benefits or creditor protection can manage either a whole property or just mineral interests for a family in perpetuity. These “off-label” uses sidestep the complexities of partnership or entity agreements while leveraging the trust’s ability to govern long-term, multigenerational ownership.

Trusts to Resolve a Complicated Probate Estate

Using a trust to manage distribution of a probate estate with many beneficiaries is a clever adaptation, especially to close probate efficiently and mitigate risks like a beneficiary’s death prolonging administration.

With many beneficiaries, probate can drag on if someone goes missing, contests the estate, or dies mid-process (triggering sub-estates). Ancillary administrations for property in multiple states can further prolong the process. Trusts simplify beneficiary sprawl by allowing interests to be conveyed to a trust earlier in the  probate process, with the executor, appointed as trustee, handling administration outside the probate process according to the decedent’s will and beneficiaries’ wishes.

What if a beneficiary dies during the probate process?  A separate probate estate must be established for the recently deceased, sometimes in a different county or state than the original. Even if a beneficiary of probate estate has a revocable trust to avoid probate of their assets, the interest in the probate estate cannot be transferred to the trust because it was not 'owned' by the beneficiary before death. This interest must be administered in a second probate This delays the original probate and burdens the beneficiary’s family with additional probate costs. Additionally, probate and trust estates often have different beneficiaries and outcomes. For example, spousal claims that affect distributions from an estate with a will (see my article, Second Marriage? Fund Your Trust!).

Many probate administrations, particularly those involving family farms, see beneficiaries agree to sell property to avoid ownership complexity, but few anticipate the risks, costs, and delays over time.  By conveying interests to a trust, beneficiaries can lock in preferences regarding distributions.   Immediately after the probate court conveys the property, deeds are prepared to transfer it to the trust, minimizing risks like a beneficiary’s death or disappearance. While this involves added expense and complexity, it is often preferable to the costs, delays, and individual burdens of subsequent probate administrations.

This approach is “off-label” because trusts are typically pre-death planning tools, not probate cleanup mechanisms. Yet, it’s a practical workaround for sprawling families or estates with complex assets, ensuring efficient estate closure.

Dynasty and Incentive Trusts

Designed for generational wealth management, dynasty trusts are often repurposed for unconventional assets, family governance, or generational incentives, such as education or successful marriages, while protecting assets from individual risks.

Incentive trusts encourage specific behaviors or achievements and discourage others. For example, a trust may condition distributions on milestones like graduating college, maintaining sobriety, or holding a job. A parent might establish a trust paying $10,000 annually to a child only with proof of full-time employment or passing drug tests, with funds held back or redirected if conditions are unmet. 

Dynasty trusts with incentives can shape behavior across generations.  While trusts protect wealth, incentive trusts shape beneficiaries’ life choices, functioning like a contractual agreement within a trust structure.  These trusts are particularly "off-label" if they incorporate specific modern wishes like encouraging coding classes, discouraging social media engagement, or encouraging investment in digital investments.  

Pet Trusts for Animal Care

Pet trusts, growing in popularity, ensure the care of pets or investment animals after the owner’s death or incapacity. I have prepared such trusts as stand-alone trusts or embedded within revocable living trusts, covering traditional pets (e.g., horses) and exotic animals (e.g., llamas, reptiles).

These trusts are funded with assets to cover expenses (food, veterinary care, grooming) and appoint a trustee and caregiver. For example, a person sets up a $50,000 irrevocable trust for their dog, with a friend as trustee and a neighbor as caregiver, ensuring the dog’s lifestyle is maintained, with remaining funds going to charity afterward. The trust can prohibit euthanasia for convenience, requiring the trustee to find a suitable owner or transfer the animal to a no-kill shelter with funds for its lifetime care to prevent abandonment.

Although increasingly common, pet trusts are “off-label” because trusts traditionally serve human beneficiaries. The Uniform Trust Code and state laws, such as Ohio Revised Code § 5804.08 and Missouri Revised Statutes Ch. 456.4-408, explicitly permit them.

Gun Trusts for Firearms Ownership

A gun trust manages ownership and transfer of firearms, especially those regulated under the National Firearms Act (NFA), like suppressors or machine guns. The trust holds title, allowing multiple trustees or beneficiaries to use the firearms without individual ATF registrations. It simplifies inheritance, bypassing probate and ensuring compliance.

For example, a collector creates an NFA trust to own a suppressor collection, naming children as co-trustees who can use the suppressors, with provisions for transferring ownership upon the collector’s death without ATF scrutiny.

Trusts typically handle real estate or cash, not regulated items like firearms, making gun trusts “off-label.” They effectively navigate complex Second Amendment and regulatory issues.

Privacy Trusts for Anonymity

Some trusts shield the identity of property owners, often for real estate or high-value assets. The trust holds title, with its name appearing on public records instead of the individual’s. A trustee manages the property, and the beneficiary retains control.

For example, a celebrity uses an Ohio Legacy Trust (OLT) or Delaware Statutory Trust (DST) to buy a vacation home, keeping their name off the deed to avoid attention, with a professional trustee handling transactions. The OLT and DST are used because they offer asset protection, though their mechanics differ. A DST protects the grantor from trust liabilities (e.g., property debts) using non-recourse financing but does not typically shield beneficial interests from personal creditors. An OLT protects trust assets from the grantor’s and beneficiaries’ creditors, provided no fraudulent transfer occurs, after an 18-month creditor claim period.

Trusts are typically for estate planning or tax benefits, not anonymity. Privacy trusts leverage the trust’s ability to obscure ownership, useful for high-profile individuals.

Business Succession Trusts

A trust can facilitate the transfer of a family business to the next generation or employees without a formal sale. The owner places company shares into a trust, with terms dictating control shifts. For example, a founder sets up a trust holding 51% of a company’s shares, transferring voting control to a daughter after she serves five years operating the business, ensuring a smooth handoff.

These trusts are “off-label” because trusts are typically for personal wealth, not business operations. They blend estate planning with corporate succession, avoiding the rigidity of buy-sell and asset purchase agreements agreements.  They often incorporate future possibility of inheritance as currency to purchase current interest in a business.

Art or Collectibles Trusts

Trusts manage and preserve valuable collections (art, rare cars, wine) for future generations or charity. The trust holds the collectibles with instructions for maintenance, insurance, display, or sale. For example, an art collector creates a trust to maintain Salvador Dalí paintings, allowing children to display them, with the collection donated to a museum after the last child’s death.

Trusts typically handle liquid and tangible assets, not niche items requiring specialized care, making this use “off-label.”

Digital Asset Trusts

Trusts increasingly manage digital assets like cryptocurrency, social media accounts, or intellectual property (e.g., NFTs). The trust holds access keys or ownership rights, with the trustee tasked with transferring or deleting them. For example, a crypto investor sets up a trust holding Bitcoin wallet keys, directing the trustee to distribute proceeds over 10 years, with a clause to delete private accounts.

Digital assets involve unique concerns, such as sensitive information or high management risks, often warranting a separate hybrid Digital Assets/Privacy/Anonymity Trust. Trusts predate the digital age, so this use is a modern twist requiring creative drafting.

Charitable Lead or Remainder Trusts for Mixed Goals

Modern charitable trusts balance giving with family benefits in unconventional ways. A charitable lead trust (CLT) pays income to a charity, then the remainder to family; a charitable remainder trust (CRT) pays family first, then charity. For example, a grantor sets up a CLT to fund a community garden for 15 years, with the remainder going to grandchildren if they volunteer, blending charity with incentives.

In Off-Label Trusts:  Part Two: Fandom Trusts, we will discuss fandom and hobbyist trusts.

These examples show how trusts stretch beyond will substitutes or tax shelters, tackling everything from pets to pistols to philanthropy. While “off-label trust” is not a term of art, the practice of bending trusts to unusual purposes is effective. Trust adaptability makes them a Swiss Army knife for creative problem-solving. A well-drafted trust document that anticipates family dynamics, asset specifics, or beneficiary sprawl is key.

Understanding DAOs, DAO Collectibles, and Their Impact on Estate Planning

The digital age has brought, for some, exciting new concepts like “DAOs” and “DAO collectibles,” which might sound technical but are easier to understand than you’d think. These digital assets are different from digital currencies, and they can play a big role in planning not just for what happens to your belongings after you pass away, but also for managing your assets while you’re alive—especially if you become unable to make decisions due to illness or incapacity. In this article, I will break it all down in plain language, explore how these assets fit into your planning, and provide practical guidance, including sample language for legal documents.

What is a DAO?

Picture a group of people who come together online to make decisions as a team, like a book club or a community project, but instead of a leader calling the shots, everyone votes, and the rules are enforced by computer code. That’s a Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO). A DAO runs on a blockchain- a secure, digital record-keeper, like that used for cryptocurrencies, and uses “smart contracts” (self-running programs) to handle things like voting or spending money.

For example, a DAO called “AICollective” might pool money to invest in artificial intelligence projects. Members own digital “tokens” that act like membership cards, giving them a say in decisions, such as which projects to fund. Because it’s “decentralized,” no single person is in charge, and it’s “autonomous” because the code keeps everything fair and transparent.

What is a DAO Collectible?

A DAO collectible is a unique digital item linked to a DAO, often called an NFT (Non-Fungible Token). Think of it like owning a rare comic book, baseball card, or piece of art, but it’s digital and stored on the blockchain. These collectibles might represent membership in the DAO, a piece of digital art, a virtual plot of land, or a share in something the DAO owns, like a real-world asset.

For instance, a DAO named “ArtCollective” could issue 50 NFTs, each tied to a famous painting they bought together. If you own one, you’re a member of the DAO and might vote on whether to loan the painting to a museum. These collectibles can be valuable, especially if the DAO or its assets gain popularity.

How Are DAOs Different from Digital Currencies?

Digital currencies, like Bitcoin or Ethereum, are like digital cash. You can spend, trade, or save them, and they’re “fungible”—one Bitcoin is worth the same as another, just like a dollar bill. They’re built for transactions, like buying goods or sending money.

DAOs and DAO collectibles aren’t money. A DAO is a way to organize and collaborate online, like a digital co-op. DAO collectibles are one-of-a-kind items, like owning a unique piece of art or a VIP pass, not something you’d use at a store. You might buy a collectible with digital currency (like using Ethereum to get an NFT), but the collectible’s purpose is tied to ownership, membership, or voting in the DAO.

Why Do DAOs/DAO Collectibles Matter for  Planning?

Planning for your assets has two big big goals: estate planning, which decides fundamentally who receives your belongings (money, house, digital assets) after you pass away and how they are received, often incorporating estate or income tax, and asset protection plannings, and life planning, which defines how and by whom your assets are managed during your lifetime, especially if you become incapacitated and can’t make decisions due to illness, injury, or mental decline. DAOs and DAO collectibles affect both because they’re valuable, digital, and complex. 

Here’s why they matter:

• They Can Be Valuable:  DAO collectibles, like rare NFTs, can be worth thousands or even millions. If you own tokens or NFTs tied to a successful DAO, they could be a major part of your wealth. Your estate plan needs to ensure they go to your chosen heirs, like your spouse or children, while your life plan should cover who manages them if you can’t.

• They’re Hard to Access Without Instructions:  DAO tokens and collectibles are stored in a digital wallet, protected by a private key (a super-secure password). Without access to your wallet, neither your family (after you’re gone) nor your trusted representative (during your life) can claim or manage these assets. Clear instructions in your estate and life plans are critical to avoid losing them, and to facilitate control by your trusted fiduciaries.

• DAOs Involve Ongoing Responsibilities: DAO tokens often come with voting rights or duties, like deciding how the group’s money is spent. Your plans should specify who handles these responsibilities if you’re incapacitated or after you pass. For example, do you want your trusted agent to vote in a DAO that owns property, or should your heirs inherit and decide?

• Tax and Legal Issues:  Laws around digital assets are still evolving and vary by country. When you die, your collectibles might face estate taxes, and during incapacity, someone may need to report income from DAO activities. Your plans can include guidance to handle taxes and legal requirements smoothly. Keep in mind that application and enforcement of even well settled rules and principals is uncertain, and might bring anomalous results.  

• They’re Not Like Physical Items

Unlike a car you can hand over, transferring a DAO collectible means sharing digital wallet access. Your estate plan must explain how to pass them to heirs, and your life plan needs to empower someone to manage them securely if you’re incapacitated, without risking theft by hackers.

Planning for Incapacity with Trusts or Powers of Attorney

To manage DAOs and collectibles during your lifetime, especially if you become incapacitated, you can use tools like a trust or a general durable power of attorney. A trust lets you appoint a trustee to manage your assets according to your instructions, either now or if you can’t make decisions. A power of attorney names an “agent” (someone you trust) to act on your behalf, and “durable” means it stays valid even if you lose mental capacity.  These documents, however, should be tailored to confer authority explicitly digital assets, and should identify whether the trustee or agent has unlimited or restricted authority to vote or make decisions within the DAO.  Because these are unique and fairly new assets, you probably don't want to rely on well-established fiduciary duties to guide agents and trustees; how these duties might be interpreted and applied in this new world is uncertain. 

For example, if you own a valuable NFT tied to a DAO, a trust could hold it and authorize your trustee to manage voting or sales if you’re unable to.  Alternately,  or, a power of attorney could empower your agent to gain access to your digital wallet to handle your DAO responsibilities, like voting on a proposal, during a hospital stay.

Sample Language for a Power of Attorney

To ensure your agent can manage your DAOs and collectibles, your power of attorney needs specific language to cover digital assets and DAO-related actions. 

Here’s an example of what you might include in a general durable power of attorney (note: always work with a lawyer to tailor this to your situation and local laws):

Digital Assets and Decentralized Organizations: I grant my agent the authority to access, manage, transfer, sell, or otherwise deal with my digital assets, including but not limited to Decentralized Autonomous Organization (DAO) tokens, Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), and other blockchain-based assets stored in digital wallets or accounts. This includes the power to: (1) Access my digital wallets using private keys, seed phrases, or other authentication methods, as securely provided by me; (2) Exercise all rights and interests associated with my DAO memberships, including, but not limited to voting on proposals, participating in governance, and managing distributions or benefits; (3) Buy, sell, trade, or transfer DAO collectibles and tokens on my behalf, including engaging with smart contracts or blockchain platforms (4) Delegate tasks related to DAO participation or collectible management to third parties, as deemed necessary, while maintaining oversight of their actions.

My agent shall act in my best interests, consistent with my prior actions or stated preferences regarding these assets, and shall take reasonable steps to secure access credentials to prevent unauthorized use.

This language gives your agent permission to handle your digital assets, vote in DAOs, and manage collectibles if you can’t, while emphasizing security and your wishes.

Tips for DAOs and DAO Collectibles in Your Plans

To protect your digital assets during life and after death, consider the following:

• Inventory Your Assets: List all your digital assets, DAO memberships and collectibles, noting the DAOs, tokens, NFTs, blockchains (e.g., Ethereum), and their estimated value.

• Secure Your Wallet: Store private keys or recovery phrases safely, like in a bank vault or with a trusted attorney. Consider multi-signature wallets or key-splitting services for added security.

• Provide Clear Instructions: In your will, trust, or power of attorney, explain how to access and manage your digital assets. For example, “My son should inherit my AICollective DAO tokens and vote on my behalf, or sell them if the DAO dissolves.”

• Work with Experts: Digital asset laws are complex. Consult a lawyer familiar with blockchain and estate planning to ensure your trust or power of attorney covers everything legally.

• Review Regularly: DAO collectibles can spike or drop in value, and DAOs may change rules or close. Update your plans every year or two to reflect what you own and want.

Conclusion

DAOs are like online teams run by members and code, while DAO collectibles are unique digital treasures, like rare NFTs, tied to those teams. Unlike digital currencies (online money for spending), DAOs and collectibles are about collaboration and ownership. They matter for both estate planning—passing assets to heirs—and life planning, like managing assets if you’re incapacitated. Tools like trusts or powers of attorney, with clear language, let trusted people handle your DAOs and collectibles securely during illness or after you’re gone.

By cataloging your assets, securing your wallet, and planning with care, you can ensure your digital legacy is protected, whether it’s voting in a DAO or passing a valuable NFT to your family. A little planning now keeps your digital world safe for the future, no matter what life brings.

Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act in Ohio

The Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act (RUFADAA) is a legal framework developed by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC) to govern fiduciary access to digital assets, addressing the growing need to manage electronic records after a person’s death or incapacity. Ohio adopted RUFADAA in 2017 (Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.01 et seq.), aligning with 45 other states by 2023 to provide a consistent approach to digital estate planning. Below, I’ll outline the specifics of RUFADAA, focusing on its application in Ohio, its key provisions, and critical considerations. 

Key Provisions of RUFADAA in Ohio

Definition of Digital Assets: RUFADAA defines a “digital asset” as an electronic record in which an individual has a right or interest, excluding underlying assets or liabilities unless they are electronic records themselves (Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.01(I)). This definition includes:

• Electronic Items with Monetary Value: Cryptocurrencies, domain names, online banking accounts.

• Electronic Communications: Emails, social media messages, text messages.

• Sentimental or Intellectual Property: Digital photos, videos, blogs.

This definition ensures fiduciaries can manage a wide range of digital assets but distinguishes them from the underlying value (e.g., funds in a bank account are not digital assets, but the electronic record of the account is).

Fiduciary Authority: RUFADAA applies to fiduciaries such as executors, trustees, agents under a power of attorney, and court-appointed guardians. Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.14. In Ohio, fiduciaries:

• have the right to access digital assets if the user (the account holder) had a right or interest in them, provided they are not restricted by a terms-of-service agreement (TOSA).

• are treated as authorized users under computer fraud and abuse laws, protecting them from legal liability when accessing assets within their scope of duties.

Hierarchy of Access Instructions: RUFADAA establishes a three-tier priority system for determining fiduciary access: 

• Online Tools: If the user designated access through an online tool (e.g., Google’s Inactive Account Manager or Facebook’s Legacy Contact), this takes precedence. For example, a user can specify a trusted contact to access their account after a period of inactivity or opt for permanent deletion.

• Legal Documents: If no online tool is used, the user’s will, trust, power of attorney, or other record governs access. For instance, a GDPOA can explicitly grant an agent authority to manage digital assets.

• Terms-of-Service Agreements (TOSA): If neither an online tool nor legal document provides direction, the custodian’s TOSA dictates access. Many TOSAs (e.g., Verizon, Yahoo) state that accounts are non-transferable and terminate upon death, potentially limiting fiduciary access.

See, Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.03 to 2137.04.

Custodian Compliance and Protections: Custodians (e.g., Google, Facebook) are the entities that store or provide digital assets. RUFADAA outlines their obligations and protections:

• Compliance Timeline: Custodians must comply with a fiduciary’s request within 60 days of receiving required documentation, such as a certified copy of the fiduciary’s authority (e.g., letter of appointment, trust certification) and account identifiers (e.g., username).  Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.07.

• Court Orders: Custodians can request a court order verifying the account belongs to the user, ensuring sufficient consent for disclosure, especially for electronic communications, which are protected under federal privacy laws like the Stored Communications Act, 18 U.S.C. § 2701 et seq.

• Limited Access: Custodians may limit disclosure to what is “reasonably necessary” for estate administration, charge fees, or refuse burdensome requests. They cannot provide access to deleted assets or joint accounts.

• Immunity: Custodians are immune from liability for good-faith compliance with fiduciary requests, protecting them from legal risks.

• Privacy and Electronic Communications:  RUFADAA balances fiduciary access with privacy.  Fiduciaries can access the “content of electronic communications” (e.g., email content, private messages) only if the user explicitly consented in a will, trust, or power of attorney. Without consent, fiduciaries may access metadata (e.g., email logs) but not the content, protecting the user’s privacy while allowing estate administration to proceed.

• Fiduciary Duties: RUFADAA applies the same legal duties to digital assets as to tangible property, including the duty of care, loyalty, and confidentiality.  Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.14. Fiduciaries cannot exceed the user’s access rights, ensuring they do not misuse their authority.

Application Challenges in Ohio 

Ohio’s adoption of RUFADAA in 2017 ensures that fiduciaries have a legal pathway to manage digital assets, but practical challenges remain.

• Documentation Requirements: Fiduciaries must provide custodians with specific documents (e.g., a certified copy of their appointment, account identifiers), which can be cumbersome, especially for multiple accounts.

• Court Involvement: If custodians resist disclosure, fiduciaries may need to seek a court order, adding time and expense to the estate administration process process.

• TOSA Conflicts: Ohio law prioritizes user directions over TOSAs, but many custodians’ agreements (e.g., Verizon’s) terminate accounts upon death, potentially conflicting with user intent unless explicitly overridden in a legal document.

Critical Examination

While RUFADAA provides a much-needed framework, it has limitations:

• Privacy vs. Access Tension: The requirement for explicit consent to access electronic communications protects user privacy but can hinder fiduciaries, especially if the user did not plan ahead. This balance may overly favor custodians, who can limit access to “reasonably necessary” information, potentially leaving sentimental assets (e.g., family photos) inaccessible.  Planning ahead, and planning capably is encouraged, but in those situations where a user does neither, or simply plans incapably or incompletely, family members will suffer.   

• Practical Barriers: The process of obtaining access—requiring documentation, court orders, and custodian compliance—can be a “headache” and an "entry barrier" for fiduciaries. This complexity may discourage fiduciaries from pursuing access, especially for less valuable assets.

• Incumbency Gaps: Incumbency gaps refer to the periods or situations in estate planning or trust administration where there is a lack of an active, legally recognized fiduciary (such as a trustee, executor, or agent under a power of attorney) to manage the estate, trust, or digital assets of a person who is incapacitated or deceased. These gaps can occur due to delays, resignations, deaths, or failures to appoint a successor fiduciary, leading to potential mismanagement, legal complications, or inability to access critical assets, including digital ones like email accounts or online financial platforms.

• Incapacity Without a Successor: In states like California, RUFADAA initially did not apply to incapacitated individuals, though Ohio’s version covers both death and incapacity. Ohio Rev. Code § 2137.03. This ensures broader applicability but highlights inconsistencies across states, as not all jurisdictions have adopted uniform provisions. Even with Ohio's broader scope, incumbency gaps remain. If a person becomes incapacitated and their agent under a General Durable Power of Attorney (GDPOA) resigns, passes away, or is otherwise unable to act, and no successor agent was named, there may be no one with legal authority to manage the person’s digital assets (e.g., accessing Gmail, paying bills online), or if the agent was the only one with access to a password manager like LastPass, an incumbency gap could prevent timely access to critical accounts.

• Death Without a Successor Trustee/Executor: Upon a person’s death, if the named executor or trustee is unavailable (e.g., predeceased, declines to serve, or is incapacitated) and no successor is appointed, there may be a delay in appointing a new fiduciary through the courts. During this gap, digital assets like Smart Home and IoT Accounts (e.g., Ring, Amazon Alexa) might go unmanaged, potentially compromising home security or functionality for aging-in-place individuals.

• Legal and Administrative Delays: Incumbency gaps often arise from the time it takes to probate a will, appoint a new trustee, or obtain court approval for a successor fiduciary. During this period, digital assets may remain inaccessible, especially if platforms like Google require a court order for access , exacerbating the issue for heirs or fiduciaries. 

• Custodian Discretion: Custodians’ ability to charge fees, limit access, or require court orders gives them significant control, potentially undermining user intent. This reflects a bias toward protecting tech companies rather than prioritizing fiduciary needs or user wishes.

Importance of a Plan Including a Digital Assets Inventory

RUFADAA’s hierarchy of access instructions supports the necessity of a tech-savvy estate plan specifying explicitly fiduciary access in a will, trust, or GDPOA to override TOSAs, and the use of a Digital Assets Inventory.  The user should:

• Appoint and Empower Fiduciaries:  Ensure your GDPOA, will, and trust name multiple successor agents, executors, and/or trustees to step in if the primary fiduciary is unavailable, and explicitly confer broad and specific authority to manage all aspects of digital assets and accounts.  

• Leverage Online Tools: Use platform-specific tools like Google’s Inactive Account Manager to designate trusted contacts, reducing reliance on fiduciaries during gaps, and minimizing disputes regarding fiduciary's' authority and role.

• Use Digital Asset Inventory Tools: Document access instructions in a Digital Assets Inventory Worksheet and store it securely (e.g., in LegalVault®) so any fiduciary can access it.  Identify, by completing the inventory, for each digital  asset or account an intention regarding  access and control by a fiduciary, and sign each page of the inventory.

• Regular Updates: Review and update your estate plan and inventory periodically to ensure named fiduciaries are still willing and able to serve, minimizing the risk of gaps, and track your decisions and updates on your Inventory.

• Deploy a Trust: Time is a factor when dealing with digital assets.  Successor agents appointed by a GDPOA can be stood up quickly while you are alive.  Upon your death, the choice is between at trustee that you nominate prior to your death or a court appointed fiduciary, such as a general or special executor, administrator, or commissioner.  Although it is possible that these may be nominated, qualified, appointed, and empowered "quickly," the normal course of events in a court process is anything but "quick."  In most cases, a successor trustee of a trust, if available and willing to serve, is able to be empowered to serve within a week of receiving a death certificate.  A court-appointed fiduciary is "quickly"  empowered within 30-90 days, though exceptions are possible.    

• Secure Storage:  Store access instructions securely (e.g., via LegalVault®) to facilitate fiduciary action.

Conclusion

RUFADAA in Ohio provides a structured legal framework for fiduciary access to digital assets, defining digital assets broadly, establishing a priority system for access, and balancing privacy with estate administration needs. However, its implementation can be complex, with custodians holding significant discretion and fiduciaries facing procedural hurdles. For estate planning, RUFADAA underscores the need for explicit authority in legal documents and proactive planning to ensure fiduciaries can manage digital assets effectively. Clients should be aware of both the legal pathway RUFADAA provides and its practical limitations, ensuring their estate plans are robust enough to navigate these challenges.

Google Accounts- Estate Planning Challenges

Managing Google assets in an estate plan begins with Google. Google offers a voluntary tool called the Inactive Account Manager, which allows users to designate trusted contacts to access their account data under specific conditions, such as prolonged inactivity. Additionally, Google has policies for handling requests from fiduciaries (like those with power of attorney or trustees) to access accounts, but these requests are subject to strict legal requirements and are not guaranteed to be accepted based solely on private directives like a power of attorney (POA) or trust.

Inactive Account Manager: Google’s Legacy Tool

Google’s Inactive Account Manager lets users plan for what happens to their account if they become inactive for a specified period (e.g., 3 to 18 months). Users can:

• Add up to 10 trusted contacts to be notified of inactivity.

• Choose to share specific data (e.g., Gmail emails, Google Photos, Drive files) with these contacts. The contacts receive an email with a link to download the designated data but do not gain full control of the account.

Alternatively, users can set their account to be deleted after the inactivity period.

This tool is optional and must be set up by the account holder while they are still active. It’s not a “requirement” but rather a proactive option for users to manage their digital legacy. If this tool is not set up, fiduciaries or family members must rely on Google’s postmortem request process, which is more complex and far less certain. Worse, it might necessitate probate; Google requires a court order in many case.

Google’s Stance on Private Directives (Power of Attorney or Trust)

Google does not automatically accept private directives like a power of attorney (POA) or trust to grant access to a Gmail account, whether the account holder is incapacitated or deceased. Here’s why:

• Legal Requirements for Access Requests: Google has a strict policy for handling requests to access a deceased or incapacitated user’s account. For deceased users, Google requires a U.S. court order directed to Google LLC, specifying that disclosure does not violate laws like the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) and the Stored Communications Act (SCA). The court order must be emailed to postmortemrequests@google.com. A court order protects Google from claims of third parties or adverse regulatory actions by governmental entities. Google explicitly states that it cannot accept other forms of legal documentation, such as wills, trusts, proof of power of attorney, or small estate documents, to satisfy this requirement.

• Power of Attorney (POA) Limitations: For living but incapacitated users, a general POA does not automatically grant access to a Google accounts such as Gmail. It is important to appreciate that Google’s policies prioritize user privacy and security, and they typically require the account holder’s direct consent or a court order to release account data. Even with a POA, fiduciaries often struggle to gain access because Google may not recognize the POA as sufficient legal authority under the SCA, which governs the disclosure of electronic communications.

• Practical Impediments: There are also impediments which arise the circumstances. For example, in cases where a POA holder tries to reset a password, Google’s recovery process (e.g., 2FA-sending a verification code to a linked phone number or backup email) often fails if the account holder cannot provide the necessary information due to incapacity. Google does not offer a streamlined process to bypass this with a POA.

• Trusts and Other Directives: Similarly, a trust document granting a trustee authority to manage digital assets is not sufficient on its own for Google to grant access. While a trust can confer legal authority under state laws like the Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act (RUFADAA), Google’s policies prioritize federal laws like the SCA and ECPA over private directives. RUFADAA (adopted in states like Ohio and Missouri) allows fiduciaries to manage digital assets if the user has given explicit consent through an online tool, will, trust, or POA, but Google often requires a court order to comply, especially for accessing the content of communications (e.g., email contents) as opposed to non-content data (e.g., a catalog of emails).

Non-US residents: For non-U.S. residents (e.g., in the UK or Portugal), this process becomes even more challenging due to jurisdictional issues, as Google requires the court order to be issued or domesticated through a U.S. court.

Challenges and Privacy Concerns

Google’s stringent requirements reflect a broader tension between user privacy and fiduciary access. The company has stated in court filings that Gmail users have “no legitimate expectation of privacy,” citing their terms of service, which allow automated scanning of emails for features like targeted ads. This stance has been criticized by privacy advocates, as it suggests Google prioritizes its own access to data over third-party access, even by legally appointed fiduciaries. For example, even “confidential mode” does not prevent Google from accessing email contents, further complicating trust in the platform for sensitive communications.

For fiduciaries, the court order requirement can be a significant barrier, especially for international users or those without the resources to obtain a U.S. court order. Even in the U.S., the process can be time-consuming and costly, often taking 30 days or more to process, as noted in older guidelines from Google (circa 2007). This can leave fiduciaries unable to access critical information, such as financial records or health data stored in Gmail, during a time-sensitive period like incapacity, guardianship contests, or estate administration.

Recommendations for Users

Given Google’s policies, users should take proactive steps to ensure their Gmail account can be accessed by trusted individuals:

• Set Up the Inactive Account Manager: This is the most straightforward way to designate access to trusted contacts after a period of inactivity.

• Document Access Instructions Separately: Use a secure service like LegalVault® to store Gmail login credentials and two-factor authentication (2FA) details, ensuring fiduciaries can access them without violating Google’s terms of service.

• Use a Digital Assets Inventory: Inform your loved ones about your accounts and where to obtain information by preparing and maintaining a Digital Assets Inventory.

• Include Digital Assets in Estate Plans: While a POA or trust may not be sufficient for Google to grant access, these documents can still provide legal authority under RUFADAA to request access, and they can guide fiduciaries in seeking a court order if necessary.

• Consider Alternatives: For highly sensitive communications, users might explore end-to-end encrypted email services like ProtonMail, which offer greater privacy but these may have their own access challenges for fiduciaries.

Conclusion

Google does not have a prescribed designated access or legacy requirement but offers the Inactive Account Manager as an optional tool for users to plan for their digital legacy. Google does not reflexively accept private directives like a power of attorney or trust as sufficient to grant access, typically requiring a U.S. court order to comply with federal privacy laws. This approach prioritizes user privacy but can create significant hurdles for fiduciaries, especially in time-sensitive situations or for non-U.S. residents. Users should proactively manage their Gmail and Google account access through Google’s tools and secure storage solutions to ensure their digital assets are accessible to trusted individuals when needed.